Micro-Mythologies

“Myths are the world's dreams.”- Joseph Campbell

To believe is to be human. 

One of the greatest forces known to humankind, belief is a universal impetus, one that has raised and toppled temples, instigated and eased wars, and inspired written works, both monumental and miniature. This exhibition showcases a selection of minute materials that pertain to mythologies and belief systems from across the world. From ancient Mesopotamian myth to modern Native American spirituality, belief transcends time and history and intertwines human existence within our world. Micro-Mythologies: World Mythology Made Miniature is a miniature book exhibition which seeks to highlight some of our oldest and most powerful stories, as well as those who preserved them. 

Mythological influence has shaped the world around us. Whether that be through architecture, art, or literature, myths serve as a testament to human cultural memory and the preservation of intangible tradition. Myths pull back the curtain of the past and reunite us with the beliefs and stories of our ancestors.   

Most of these materials originate from the collection of prolific miniature book collector, Ruth Elizabeth Adomeit (1910–1996). Notable book artists highlighted in Micro-Mythologies include Maryline Poole Adams, Carol Cunningham, Barbara J. Raheb, Dianne Weiss, and Gabrielle Fox. 

Micro-Mythologies: World Mythology Made Miniature is curated by Curatorial Assistant Jake Gentry, with counsel from Sarah McElroy Mitchell, Curator of Religious Collections. In addition, exhibition design was done by Jenny Mack and graphic design by David Orr. This exhibition is on display in the Lilly Library Ball Room through December 2026. 

Complete exhibition text

Below, you'll find a description of each object in this exhibition.

Case 1: Gods and Heroes

Hindu Mythology

1 Carol Cunningham. Elephant. Mill Valley, California: Sunflower Press, 1991.

Unsurprisingly, Cunningham’s collection of elephant legends and folklore features Ganesha, the elephant-headed god of Hindu religion and mythology. Ganesha is the Hindu god of good fortune, wisdom, new beginnings, and the removal of obstacles. Besides his elephant head, Ganesha’s other notable traits include his four arms and his singular tusk, as his other is broken off. You have probably noticed in the illustration that Ganesha is not riding a horse, but a white mouse! Many Hindu gods and beings have divine vehicles or mounts known as vāhana (वाहन, “that which carries”), and Ganesha is usually depicted riding a mouse known as the Mūṣakavāhana (“mouse-mount”) and carrying an Ākhuketana (“rat-banner”).

2 Sanjay Acharya. Jagannath: Lord of the Universe. Odisha, India: MGM Group, 2015.

Jagannath (Sanskrit: जगन्नाथ, “Lord of the Universe”) is a regional form of Krishna, the Hindu god of protection, love, and compassion. On occasion, he is regarded as an avatar of Vishnu, the Hindu god of preservation and bestower of karma. Jagannath is typically worshipped alongside Krishna’s brother and sister, Balarama (Hindu god of agriculture and strength) and Subhadra (consort of Arjuna), as a divine triad.

3 Susan Acker. The Sun, Full Circle, East. San Rafael, California: Feathered Serpent Press; Mill Valley, California: Splendid Press, 1981.

Illustrated here is Surya, the Hindu god of the sun. His divine vehicle is a golden solar chariot drawn by seven horses; the number of his horses corresponds to the seven colors of visible light, and the seven days of the week. Every day, Surya travels across the sky, bringing light, warmth, and life to the world. His charioteer, Aruna, is the divine personification of dawn. Some of Surya’s other epithets include Bhaskara (“Light-maker”), Dinakara (“Day-maker”), and Sahasra-kirana (“Of a 1,000 rays”). He is a member of the navagraha (Sanskrit: नवग्रह, “Nine planets”), a group of deities who personify the nine heavenly bodies thought to influence life on earth in Hinduism and Hindu mythology.

Aztec Mythology

4 Dianne Weiss. The Sun, Full Circle, South. Mill Valley, California: Figment Press; Mill Valley, California: Splendid Press, 1981.

Dianne Weiss illustrates here Huitzilopochtli, the Aztec god of the sun and war, as well as the Ruler of the South and the patron god of the Aztec capital Tenochtitlán. His name translates as "Left-Handed Hummingbird" or "Hummingbird of the South." His animal spirit form (nagual) was an eagle. Human sacrifice and bloodletting were primary aspects of Huitzilopochtli’s worship, as the Aztec peoples believed that sacrificed blood nourished him. Like the Greek Helios or the Hindu Surya, Huitzilopochtli’s daily journey across the sky corresponds with the movement of the sun. Huitzilopochtli was not alone in his journey–he was joined by the spirits of warriors (who returned to the physical world as hummingbirds) during the morning, and the spirits of women who died in childbirth (Cihuateteo) in the afternoon.

5 Carol Cunningham. Masks. Mill Valley, California: Sunflower Press, 1983.

In Masks, Cunningham explores the use of masks across various world belief systems and mythologies. This illustration depicts an ancient Mesoamerican mask originating from Teotihuacan and West Mexico during the Middle Classic period (300-550 A.D.). Inlaid with turquoise, amazonite, obsidian, and mussel shells, the forehead is marked with the glyph for "flowing water.” Thought to be utilized in funerary rituals, the mask’s usage of turquoise, shells, and the glyph also identifies it to Chalchiuhtlicue (“'She of the Jade Skirt'”), an Aztec goddess of water, rivers, oceans, rain, and baptisms.

Chinese Mythology

6 Tales of Hou Yi: A Chinese Folk Story. Bisbee, Arizona: Pequeño Press, 1993.

In Taoist mythology, Hou Yi (后羿) is a divine hunter sometimes depicted as a demigod, xian (an immortal or magical being), and a god of archery. He is the husband of Chang'e (嫦娥), the goddess of the moon. In one of his most prominent legends, Hou Yi is tasked by the legendary Emperor Yao to stop the ten suns from shining simultaneously and searing the earth. After diplomacy and trickery fail, Hou Yi is forced to shoot down all but one of the suns from the heavens, leaving the lone sun that we know today.

7 Charlene Larsen. Chinese Immortals. Lake in the Hills, Illinois: Charlene Larsen, 1987.

The Eight Immortals (八仙) are a group of xian (immortals) in Chinese mythology and Taoism. The group is composed of Lü Dongbin, Zhongli Quan, Cao Guojiu, Li Tieguai, Han Xiangzi, Lan Caihe, Zhang Guo, and He Xiangu (who is usually the only woman among the Eight Immortals). First appearing during the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368 AD), the Eight Immortals are said to live on five islands or mountains in the Bohai Sea, including the legendary Mount Penglai (蓬萊仙島; lit. 'Penglai Immortal Island'). Seen as symbols of longevity, good fortune, and prosperity, the Eight Immortals are often in the company of other divine beings, such as Xiwangmu, the Queen Mother of the West, who some credit as the source of the Immortals’ supernatural powers.

8 Tomisaburō Hasegawa. Utsubuki Hagoromo (Japanese; 打吹羽衣 / 長谷川富三郎). Otaru-shi: Hokkaidō Mamehon no Kai, Shōwa 33 [1958].

Pictured here in Hasegawa’s Utsubuki Hagoromo is a Tennyo (天女; "Heavenly Woman/Women"), a divine messenger found in Japanese Buddhism and Japanese mythology. An all-female class of the Tennin, tennyo act as messengers and companions of the heavenly occupants of Tendō, the highest of the six realms of existence in Buddhist cosmology, serving the emperor of heaven, buddhas, and bodhisattvas. Tennyo are ethereally beautiful and are known to play the flute or the biwa, a Japanese short-necked lute, and carry lotus blossoms, which represent enlightenment. Tennyo don flowing, feathery kimono gowns called hagoromo (羽衣, “Feather Cloth”), which give them the ability to fly. A common legend in Japanese folklore involves a group of tennyo flying down to earth and briefly removing their hagoromo to swim, only to be found by a fisherman who hides their kimono, keeping them from ascending back to heaven. In exchange for their robes, he coerces one tennyo to stay on earth and become his wife. Years later, the fisherman reveals to his captive wife where he hid her hagoromo, and she leaves him to return to the heavens.

Celtic Mythology

9 James Macpherson (translator). The Poems of Ossian, the Son of Fingal. Edinburgh: Printed by John Johnstone, Strichen's Close, 1806.

Oisín is a legendary demigod and warrior-poet from Irish mythology. He is the son of the hero Fionn mac Cumhaill and Sadhbh, princess of the aos sí (a supernatural race similar to fairies or elves). Oisín accompanied his father and his warrior band throughout the Ossianic Cycle of Irish mythology, which is named after Oisín, who is said to be the cycle’s narrator. Later on, he weds Niamh Cinn-Óir, a fairy woman who whisks Oisín away to Tír na nÓg (“Land of the Young”), where he lives in a state of eternal youth for over three hundred years. Although Niamh eventually allows Oisín to return to Ireland, when he touches the ground, he immediately ages and is doomed to never return to her. Macpherson based his narrator Ossian on the mythical Oisín. 

10 Lady Gregory. Celtic Myths and Legends. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; London: Running, 1999.

This miniature edition of Lady Gregory’s Celtic Myths and Legends features many of the paramount tales of Irish mythology, including the daring exploits of Fionn mac Cumhaill and the Fianna, the tumultuous love story of Diarmuid Ua Duibhne and Gráinne, and journeys to magical lands, such as Tír na nÓg. The book features a black bookmark with a metal charm engraved with a variant of the Celtic triskele, a common motif found in ancient Irish architecture.

Greco-Roman Mythology

11 Barbara J. Raheb. Classical Mythology. Van Nuys, California: Collector Editions, 1980. BL725 .R14

Raheb’s Classical Mythology is one of the smallest mythological miniature books in the Lilly Library’s collections, and is number 245 out of 300 limited edition copies. The titular term “classical mythology” is an umbrella term for Greco-Roman mythology, which emerged during Classical antiquity, a period in European history that ranged from the 8th century BC to the 5th century AD.

12 Petite Galerie Mythologique. Paris: Marcilly fils aîné, rue St. Jacques, no 21, 1820.

This deck of twenty-five hand-colored engravings showcases various figures from Roman mythology, such as the Twelve Olympians (known in Rome as the Dii Consentes), as well as some other important beings, such as the demigod Hercules and the titan Saturn. During the Roman conquest of Greece, the Romans adopted ancient Greek religion into their own belief systems. Thus, many legendary figures originating from Roman legend have Greek counterparts, such as Neptune and Poseidon, or Diana and Artemis.

13 Jane Bernier (compiler). Greek Myths of Creation. Belfast, Maine: Borrower's Press, 1985.

In Greek mythology, the early days of creation were incredibly tumultuous. The formless void known as Chaos spawned many primordial gods such as Nyx (goddess of night), Erebus (god of darkness), Hemera (goddess of the day), and Gaia (goddess of the earth). Gaia, the earth mother from which all life originated, gave birth to monsters and giants. Through Uranus (god of the sky), she mothered the Titans, the predecessors and parents of the Twelve Olympians.  Uranus was usurped by Cronus, his son and ruler of the Titans. With the titaness Rhea, Cronus would father some of the Olympians, including Poseidon, Hades, Hestia, Hera, Demeter, and Zeus. After learning that he was doomed to be overthrown by his own children, as he had his own father, Cronus devoured his godly children. The only one to escape was the last-born, Zeus, who was spirited away by Rhea with the assistance of Gaia. Later, a grown Zeus would lead a divine war against Cronus, known as the Titanomachy, which resulted in the defeat of Cronus and Zeus’s rise to power as ruler of Olympus and the gods.

14 The Gorgon's Head. New York: John H. Eggers, 1917.

The Gorgon’s Head details one of the most famous quests of the Greek hero Perseus, in which he is tasked by Polydectes to retrieve the snake-haired head of the gorgon Medusa. Pictured here, Perseus seeks the council of the Graeae (Γραῖαι, “old women”), a trio of sister witches who all shared a single eye and one tooth. If you look closely, you may spot that Perseus is holding something–that would be the shared eyeball of the sisters, which he uses as leverage to coerce the Graeae to reveal the location of Medusa and her sister gorgons.

Case 2: Symbols and Glyphs

Native American Mythology and Folklore

1 Alice Cornell. Shaman: Anthropomorphic Figures in North American Rock Art. Cincinnati: Fox Moon Publications, 1997.

These cards each display anthropomorphic petroglyphs (ancient rock engravings) created by various Native American nations and tribes across North America. Ancient Native American rock art has been dated as far back as 10,000 BC, when early humans migrated from Siberia around the end of the Last Glacial Period. While the precise purpose of these images is unknown, it is thought that they had both ceremonial and historical functions. The anthropomorphic figures were likely created during ceremonies and used to mark and empower sacred sites. Among their many uses were instilling fertility, manifesting success in hunts, increasing local animal populations, and connecting or documenting vision quests.

Many of these figures depict gods, spirits, or supernatural beings, whose imagery was engraved at ceremonial sites and significant locations. For example, rain gods were carved at mountaintop sites in the Southwest to incite rainfall. Zoomorphic figures (utilizing the shape of animals) such as the Awanyu, the horned serpent of the Southwest, Mishipizhiw, the water panther of the Great Lakes, and the Thunderbird of the Pacific Northwest, are all spiritual beings of power found in ancient rock art. Many figures here also bear shamanic features, such as horns or horned headdresses, power lines, and ceremonial staves. To many Native American ancestral groups, shamans were seen as mediators between humans and the spirits or gods, and were charged with performing ceremonies.

2 Carol Cunningham. The Sun, Full Circle, West. Mill Valley, California: Sunflower Press; Mill Valley, California: Splendid Press, 1981.

In Navajo legend, the cardinal directions are sacred, serving as points of spiritual and physical orientation. Each direction corresponds with a color, a mountain, and the movement of the sun across the sky. The Four Sacred Mountains of the Navajo mark the boundaries of the traditional Diné homeland, known as Dinétah. In sunwise order, the directions and mountains are:

The east is associated with the color white, morning, and Blanca Peak (Navajo: Sis Naajinį́, "black belted mountain"). To the Navajo, sunlight from dawn in the east is sacred and regarded as the direction in which blessings arrive.

The south is associated with the color blue, day, and Mount Taylor (Navajo: Tsoodził, "The Great Mountain").

The west is associated with the color yellow, evening, and San Francisco Peaks (Navajo: Dookʼoʼoosłííd,  "its summit never melts").

The north is associated with the color black, night, and Hesperus Mountain (Navajo: Dibé Ntsaa, "Big Mountain Sheep").

Mayan Mythology

3 Carol Cunningham. The Sun: An Alphabet. Mill Valley, California: Sunflower Press, 1997.

The Maya civilization, active in the tropical lowlands of south-eastern Mexico and nearby Central America around 2000 BC to 1697 AD, utilized a hieroglyphic script that first appeared in the Peten region of northern Guatemala around 250 AD. Maya glyphs were engraved onto stone monuments, written on folding, bark-paper codices, and onto other perishable materials. Today, only four Maya codices survive. Classic Maya religion was polytheistic, containing numerous gods, spirits, and monsters. A few of these gods included Itzamna, the creator god, Chaak, the rain and storm god, and K’inich Ajaw, the sun god (referred to in the codices as God G).

K’inich Ajaw (“Sun-eyed ruler” or “Sun-faced Ruler”), an aspect of the creator god Itzamna, was symbolized by “K’in” ('day, sun'), a four-petaled, Maya glyph of the sun. When the sun set in the west, K’inich Ajaw took on the form of the jaguar (known in Maya as bahlam), which the Maya revered as the most powerful of all nocturnal creatures. As the Jaguar God of the Underworld, or the “Night Sun,” the jaguar god carries the sun on his shoulders as he travels west to east through the Mayan underworld (known as Xibalba, or "place of fright"). Once he traverses Xibalba, he surfaces from his subterranean journey as K’inich Ajaw once more, bringing the sunrise with him. Alongside the sun, K’inich Ajaw was associated with kings and royalty.

Gods shifting divine forms throughout the sun’s daily cycle and carrying the sun through the underworld at night is a common theme in mythology– the Egyptian sun god Ra has a very similar journey.

4 Richard E. Nicholls. Turtles: In Fact, Folklore, and Myth. Berkeley, California: The Nature Company, 1993.

The Maya word for turtle is “ahk,” and is symbolized by this glyph. In Maya mythology, the earth was believed to be a colossal turtle, which floated in a primordial sea. The sky was envisioned as the inside of the turtle’s carapace (the upper part of the shell). Turtles were sacred creatures in Maya culture, and their iconography was often used in their architecture, such as the House of the Turtles in the ancient Maya city of Uxmal, located in present-day Mexico.

Pawahtuun, also designated in codices as God N, is a Mayan god or group of gods that hold up the sky, standing at the four corners of the world. He was often associated with turtles, given the Maya belief that turtles are symbols of the earth. Pawahtuun is depicted as aged and wearing a turtle on his back. In some instances, Pawahtuun lives inside a turtle and emerges from it. This imagery has led Pawahtuun to be occasionally conflated or likened to the Maya Maize God (God E), who is resurrected from the carapace of the world turtle and emerges similarly.

Egyptian Mythology

5 Susan Acker. Ra, the Sun God. Mill Valley, California: Splendid Press & Paper Works, 1979.

Illustrated here is the ancient Egyptian sun god, Ra. The T-shaped symbol below the text, known as the ankh or “key of life,” is a talismanic hieroglyph dating back to the First Dynasty (3100 BC–2900 BC). The ankh represents life and vital force. You will note that Ra also holds an ankh in one of his hands; in ancient Egypt, this was used as a visual motif to convey the life-giving power of the gods.

In his other hand, Ra holds the was-scepter, a black, straight staff topped with an animal head. The was (wꜣs, "power, dominion"), is a symbol of divine authority, and was utilized similarly to the ankh to showcase the might of the gods. The was is also associated with Set, an Egyptian god of chaos and storms, and the Set animal, or sha. The Set animal, which appeared as a slender, black jackal-like creature with a forked tail, gave its likeness to the scepter. In Egyptian mythology, chaos is the greatest evil in the world, and Ma’at, the goddess of truth and balance, brought order to the world’s chaos. Thus, the was-scepter also symbolizes the divine power to control and defeat Set and the chaos he created. Anubis, the Egyptian god of funerals and mummification, was another jackal-god particularly linked with the was. With Anubis, the power of the scepter protected the welfare of the deceased, and its symbol often adorned sarcophagi. Physical scepters were also placed in tombs for the deceased to use in the afterlife.

On top of his head, Ra wears the divine sun disk, Aten. Encircling the disk is the symbol of an Egyptian cobra, the uraeus, which represents the goddess Wadjet, as well as sovereignty and royal power. Wadjet, usually depicted as a winged serpent, was associated with the Eye of Horus and Eye of Ra, as well as the protection of Lower Egypt. Her likeness, appearing on the crowns of gods and pharaohs, denoted authority of the land. Later tradition depicted the uraeus as defending pharaohs by spitting fire at their enemies.

6 Juniper Von Phitzer. From the Library at Alexandria Recently Discovered: A Fantasy Scroll.  San Francisco, California: Juniper Von Phitzer Press, 1998.

This miniature artist book, which uses turquoise-ended dowels and paper made from wood veneer, reimagines a manuscript scroll that survived the burning of the Library of Alexandria in 48 BC. Its pictorial designs feature contemporary usage of Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics, religious symbols, and iconography. This section of the scroll details the Weighing of the Heart ceremony, undertaken by the spirits of the recently deceased.

In ancient Egyptian mythology, the soul must first be judged before it can enter the afterlife. To accomplish this, a spirit journeys to the Hall of Ma’at, the goddess of truth and order, and weighs their heart against Ma’at’s Feather of Truth. If the heart balances with the feather, it is deemed worthy to enter the heavenly realm of Aaru, otherwise known as the Field of Reeds. If the heart is heavier than the feather, the soul is consumed by Ammit, the Devourer of the Dead, and doomed to eternal nonexistence.

7 Ptahhotep. Papyrus vezíra Ptaḥhotepa. Praha: Lyra, 1971.

The cover of this miniature book features the Eye of Ra, also known as the right wedjat-eye. This ancient Egyptian symbol often represents the destructive power of Ra, the sun god and ruler of the Egyptian pantheon. The severe heat of the sun was occasionally likened to divine arrows shot by Ra to slay evil beings. Further, the incendiary gaze of the Eye of Ra was regarded as one of the few countermeasures against Apep, the chaos-serpent and source of all evil in Egyptian mythology. However, like the Eye of Horus (the left wedjat-eye), the Eye of Ra was used in apotropaic or protective magic in warding off evil, and was often worn as an amulet.

8 Akhenaton. Hymn to Aton. San Francisco, California: Juniper Von Phitzer, 1995.

The New Kingdom pharaoh Akhenaten, the father or grandfather of Tutankhamun, was a major disruptor of ancient Egyptian polytheism. During his reign, approximately 1350–1336 BC, he replaced the traditional polytheistic religion with the new, monotheistic religion of Atenism, which appointed Aten, the divine sun disk, as the supreme god of Egypt. Akhenaten forbade the worship of any god but Aten and shuttered the state temples of all other gods. This miniature artist book, which contains text from the Great Hymn to the Aten, also utilizes symbols of ancient Egypt unrelated to Aten, such as the three symbols shown here.

On the left, you will notice a beetle. This insect, whose image is derived from Scarabaeus sacer or the sacred scarab (“ḫprr” in Egyptian), is linked with Khepri, the scarab-headed god of rebirth and the morning sun, as well as Ra, the sun god and ruler of the gods. Scarab amulets were quite common in ancient Egypt, used in everyday wear and funerary ritual for protection, signs of reverence, and to bring good fortune. Funerary scarabs, called heart scarabs, were often placed on the chest of the deceased to quiet the heart during a spirit’s ceremony of judgement in the afterlife.

In the middle, the blue bird flying above water symbolizes Nekhbet, a vulture goddess and patroness of Upper Egypt. She, alongside Wadjet, the patroness of Lower Egypt, forms the “Two Ladies,” the guardians of a unified Egypt.

To the right, the T-shaped symbol is an ankh, which represents life force. Known also as the Key of Life, the gods are often depicted holding an ankh, showcasing their life-giving power and role to Egypt and its people. Like the scarab, the ankh was often worn as an amulet for everyday and ceremonial use.

Norse Mythology

9 Jennifer Smith. Odin's Gift. Bisbee, Arizona: Pequeño Press, 1999.

In Norse mythology, Odin is the supreme god of runes, magic, poetry, the dead, and the ruler of the gods. Odin is often accompanied by familiar animals, including his two ravens Huginn (“mind”) and Muninn (“will”), and his two wolves, Geri ("Greed") and Freki ("Glutton"). Odin resides in Asgard, the celestial, walled realm of the Æsir (one of two factions of the Norse gods). In Asgard, Odin sits on his all-seeing throne, Hliðskjálf, which allows him to peer into and listen in on all nine realms of the colossal world tree, Yggdrasil. Odin gained his legendary wisdom by sacrificing one of his eyes in exchange for a drink from Mímisbrunnr ("Mímir's wellspring"), an enchanted spring. During Ragnarök, the end of the world in Norse mythology, Odin will lead the einherjar (the spirits of fallen warriors chosen by the valkyrie) into battle against an army of monsters and giants. During the apocalyptic battle, Odin is fated to fall to the great wolf Fenrir, who will devour him whole.

Runes, the language of magic and spells in Norse mythology, are attributed to originating from Odin. Legends vary if Odin gifted runes to mankind himself, or if they were stolen from him and given to mortals by a man named Kettil Runske. The cover of this miniature book features a runic disk made of bone and bears a bindrune, a symbol composed of multiple runes.

10 A.R. Mason. The Book of Runes. Wootton Bassett, England: Pixie Press, 1991.

In Norse mythology, runes were often imbued with supernatural power, and they were often worn or carved into objects to convey spell-like effects, such as charms, curses, and blessings. In particular, the runes Ansuz (ᚨ), Laguz (ᛚ), Naudiz (ᚾ), and Tiwaz (ᛏ) held magical significance. In the Poetic Edda, victory runes are carved into a sword hilt for success in battle. Runes had a variety of purposes– while some were used in healing and love magic, others, inscribed on runestones, inflicted curses. A common runestone curse doomed whoever broke the stone into a ræti (“warlock”). Anglo-Saxon runic rings from the Viking Age (800–1050 CE), engraved with healing and protective runic spells, were worn as amulets to protect the wearer. Other reported types of runes included biargrunar (meaning ‘“birth-runes,” used to ease childbirth), brimrunar (“wave-runes,” used to protect ships, usually carved onto the ship’s bow and rudder), gamanruna (“gladness-runes,” which bestowed gladness), hugrunar (“thought-runes,” which augmented wit), limrunar (“branch-runes,” healing runes incised onto trees), and malrunar (“speech-runes,” which enhanced oratorical prowess). In the Proto-Norse language, an erilaz was a magician or “rune master” who was able to write, carve, or otherwise create runes for supernatural purposes.

A famous runic charm word is alu, which is composed of three runes: Ansuz (ᚨ), Laguz (ᛚ), and Uruz (ᚢ). Alu, whose literal translation is “ale,” is referred to in the Poetic Edda, where a valkyrie named Sigrdrífa (another name for Brynhild) divulges the knowledge of "ölrúnar" (Old Norse for ‘ale runes’) as a protective measure against witchcraft. Alu appears on numerous Nordic artifacts, including runestones, bone carvings, medals, weapons, gravestones, and urns (this usage could suggest the runes could have been used in funerary magic). While the exact magical function of alu is debated, the charm can represent altered mental states brought on by intoxicating beverages, which were commonly utilized in Germanic Pagan rituals.

11 Darrad̊arljod: Song of the Valkyrie from Njáls Saga. Tuscaloosa: Biblioclasm Press, 2014. PT7246.N61 D35 2014

The Darrad̊arljod is a skaldic poem originally written in Old Norse and found in chapter 157 of the Njáls Saga, which tells the story of a man named Dörruð. During the narrative, Dörruð spies upon the valkyries (Old Norse: valkyrja, ”chooser of the slain”), celestial shieldmaidens in Norse mythology, who decide the fate of warriors who die in battle. As the legend goes, during the Battle of Clontarf, which was waged near Dublin on 23 April 1014, Dörruð saw twelve valkyrie weaving (a theme associated with fate in Norse tradition) on a ghastly loom made of swords, arrows, and human body parts (specifically bones, entrails, and heads). From this loom, the valkyries decided which warriors would fall in the battle. Out of the twelve valkyries who appear in the Darrad̊arljod, only six are named: Hildr, Hjörþrimul, Guðr, Göndul, Sanngriðr, and Svipul.

In Norse mythology, the valkyries descend upon battlefields to retrieve the souls of those who died in battle. They guide these deceased warriors to Valhalla, Odin’s great hall in Asgard. There, they are trained as the einherjar ("army of one" or "those who fight alone"), Odin’s personal legion, which will fight in his name during the end of the world, Ragnarök. When not retrieving fallen warriors, valkyries attend to the einherjar in Valhalla, serving them mead. As divine beings, valkyries often appear as the lovers of heroes, such as Brynhild, the lover of the hero Sigurd. Valkyries are connected to some of Norse mythology’s most sacred animals, namely wolves, boars, and swans.

These illustrations are depictions of runestones, predominantly found in Sweden, which are tributes to Vikings felled in battle.

Case 3: Spirits and Beasts

Miscellaneous Traditions

1 Barbara J. Raheb. Mythical Creatures. Van Nuys, California: Collector Editions, 1980.

The Lamassu (Cuneiform: 𒀭𒆗) is a celestial creature or protection deity from Mesopotamian mythology, which embodies the zodiac and the stars. In the Sumerian period of Mesopotamia, this being was a winged goddess called Lamma, who acted as a divine mediator between mortal prayer and the gods. In this form, Lamma was depicted as a woman adorned in a ruffled dress and a horned tiara. However, in the later Assyrian period, the goddess’s iconography shifted into a hybrid creature, known as the lamassu. The first instance of a distinct lamassu motif can be traced back to the reign of Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser II around 967 BC.

In this new form, the lamassu has the body of a bull or lion (representing strength), eagle wings (representing freedom), and the head of a man (representing intelligence). In Assyrian tradition, it was common to place colossal pairs of lamassu statues at the entrances of palaces and cities, as they acted as divine sentinels. Traditionally, lamassu carvings were “double-aspect” figures, and changed forms depending on the viewer’s perspective. If looking ahead, the lamassu appeared to stand to greet you, and as one passed beside them, they appeared to walk. From the side perspective, the lamassu also has five legs, rather than four. Giant lamassu statues were also stationed around cities, where they each faced a cardinal direction.

Inheriting their role of protective spirits from the goddess Lamma, lamassu were worshipped as guardians of the household. A common Assyrian custom involved burying a clay tablet engraved with a lamassu under a door’s threshold to defend the home from danger.

2 James Berry. Connemara. Onnen, Netherlands: 't Widde Vool, 1987.

The frontispiece of James Berry’s Connemara features a variation of the Pictish Beast. This illustration is lifted from a carving on a Pictish standing stone, which depicts two intertwining horse-like creatures with fins and fish-like tails. Active in Scotland during the Early Middle Ages, the Picts were one of the earliest groups of Celtic peoples active in Scotland, and their religious systems influenced later folkloric and mythological traditions. In Celtic mythology, waterhorses–equine spirits that dwell in bodies of water and frequently drown those unfortunate enough to approach them– are common legendary creatures.

There are many regional variations of the Celtic waterhorse, such as the cabbyl-ushtey of the Isle of Man, the kelpie of Scotland, and the each-uisge of Ireland. In Irish legend, an each-uisge (anglicized as aughisky) terrorized Lough Treagh, Connemara, where it would attack those it came across. The Irish each-uisge is a particularly dangerous form of Celtic waterhorse. Said to inhabit both lochs and the sea, the each-uisge typically appears alongside the shore and employs shape-shifting powers to lure its victims in. Often taking the guise of an elegant horse, once someone climbs onto their back to ride them, the each-uisge’s skin becomes adhesive, trapping the rider. The waterhorse then plunges into the deepest part of the loch, where it drowns its victim. The each-uisge then rips apart and consumes the victim’s body, leaving behind only the liver, which floats to the water’s surface.

3 Barbara J. Raheb. Russian Fairy Tales. Tarzana, California: Pennyweight Press, 1982.

The Firebird (Russian: жар-пти́ца, romanized: zhar-ptitsa) is a magical creature from a faraway land in Slavic mythology. It is depicted as a large, falcon-like bird with a crested head, golden and glowing plumage, crystalline eyes, and long tail feathers. The feathers of the firebird, which glow in fiery reds, oranges, and yellows, are said to emit immense light, with a single feather able to illuminate a large room. The feathers retain their fiery light forever and do not cease glowing even if removed from the bird. In legend, the firebird is highly sought after and difficult to catch, with heroes such as Prince Ivan Tsarevich (Russian: Ива́н Царе́вич or Иван-царевич) going on quests to capture it for various reasons (In Prince Ivan’s case, his father’s kingdom). In most tales, those who seek the firebird often suffer great misfortune, making the bird a prophetic dichotomy, both a fleeting wonder and a harbinger of doom.

4 Barbara J. Raheb. The Unicorn Book. Van Nuys, California: Barbara J. Raheb, 1981. GR830.U6 U58

As ancient as it is famous, the unicorn, or at least a version of it, can be traced as far back as the Upper Paleolithic Lascaux cave paintings (17000 BC to c. 15000 BC), and the Bronze Age stamps created by the Indus Valley Civilization (3300 BC to 1300 BC). The depiction of a vaguely equine or bovine creature with a lone horn has appeared in numerous cultures, including winged bulls in ancient Persian art, the cartazonos or monoceros from Ancient Greece and later European medieval bestiaries, the Camahueto from Chilote mythology, Karkadann from Arabian and North Indian art, the re’em from the Hebrew Bible, the Indrik from Russian folklore, and Shâd'havâr from medieval Muslim bestiaries. Many of these depictions seemingly stem from cultural distortions of the rhinoceros or oryx.

The modern-day depiction of the unicorn as a horse with a spiraling, long horn originates from medieval bestiaries. Through the influence of Christianity, the unicorn became associated with the Virgin Mary, chastity, purity, and innocence. In medieval tradition, the hunting of the ethereal unicorn corresponds with Jesus, a pure being harmed by the sinful hands of mankind. Legend proclaimed that only chaste women could tame the elusive unicorn, furthering the connotation between the creature and the Christian ideal of female purity.

Unicorn horn, called alicorn, was regarded as a miraculous cure-all in medieval times, and “unicorn horns” (usually the tusks of narwhals) were ground into medicinal powders. Unicorn horn–which was sold in Europe as late as 1741–was believed to detect poison, and drinking vessels made of alicorn (or, in actuality, ivory from elephants, narwhals, and walruses) were often gifted to royalty, as any poison slipped into their drink was believed to be purified by the horn.

5 John Peter Lathourakis. Pegasus = Pegasos. Morro Bay, California: Tabula Rasa Press, 1986. BL820.P4 L35

One of the most well-known creatures from Greek mythology, Pegasus (Ancient Greek: Πήγασος) is a winged, white stallion born from the decapitation of the snake-haired gorgon Medusa. Pegasus is the offspring of the sea god Poseidon and the brother of Chrysaor, who was also born from Medusa’s bloody demise. He is occasionally depicted as transporting Zeus’s thunderbolts in Olympus, the celestial abode of the gods.

The hero Bellerophon, with the assistance of Athena and Poseidon, can capture and ride Pegasus. Together, Pegasus and Bellerophon slayed the fire-breathing Chimera of Lycia. Another legend states that Bellerophon tried to reach Olympus by flying on Pegasus, and that Zeus, infuriated by this attempt, smote the hero and the winged horse out of the sky to their deaths.

Dragons in World Mythology

6 Richard Huber. Dragons: A Universal Myth. Austin, Texas: Amistad Press, 1983. GR830.D7 H87 1983

Kukulkan (‘"Plumed Serpent" or "Amazing Serpent") is a supreme snake deity in Maya mythology, depicted as a winged or feathered serpent, occasionally with a god or ancestor emerging from its maw. Snakes were powerful socioreligious symbols in Maya culture, as they believed that celestial bodies such as the stars, the sun, and the moon, were carried across the heavens by cosmic serpents. Further, snakes shedding their skin came to symbolize rebirth and renewal. Kukulkan, as a god, evolved from the Maya Vision Serpent, a being associated with Maya bloodletting rituals, who acted as a messenger between humans and the gods. Over time, Kukulkan’s worship shifted, and in places like Chichen Itza, the snake god took on the role of divine patron of the region. Across Mesoamerica, similar Feathered Serpents can be found, such as Quetzalcoatl of Aztec mythology and Qʼuqʼumatz and Tohil of the Kʼicheʼ people.

Depicted as overseeing sacrificial rites, Kukulkan was widely worshipped in places of significant religious or social importance, such as Chichen Itza, Uxmal, and Mayapan. The architecture of the Mesoamerican step-pyramid El Castillo, known originally as the Temple of Kukulcan, was built to align with the sun on the vernal and autumnal equinoxes, where the shadows of the temple’s stairs and statues cast an illusion of a colossal serpent slithering down the structure. In modern Yucatec Maya folklore, Kukulkan is said to be the source of yearly earthquakes in July, and precedes the rain created by the god Chaac by flying ahead to stir the wind and sweep the earth clean with its feathered tail.

7 Vuk Stefanović Karadžić. Dragons: (from Volksmärchen der Serben). Van Nuys, California: Collector Editions in Miniature, 1979. GR830.D7 D75 1979

In Serbian folklore and mythology, dragons are referred to as zmaj (“змај”) and are monstrous yet intelligent creatures. A common theme in Serbian folk tales involves a zmaj being trapped in a magical cask bound in iron or chains until a foolish prince frees it. The dragon then captures the prince’s wife and steals her away to his palace. In Serbian legend, it is said that a common snake, upon reaching a specific age, can transform into a zmaj. Slavic dragons, like dragons in Western tradition, are depicted as scaly, serpentine monsters with large, bat-like wings, sharp claws, and four legs. Occasionally, the zmaj is given a forked or fish-like tail. Similar to Chinese dragons, many Slavic dragons are associated with weather-making, such as stirring up tornadoes and raising floods.

8 Jacob Strandlien. Dragons. Bisbee, Arizona: Pequeño Press, 2000.

The loong (龍) are dragons in Chinese mythology. While they are reptilian like most dragons in Western tradition, the Chinese loong are more serpentine and do not have wings. Additionally, they usually have other animalistic traits, such as crocodile heads, stag antlers, carp scales, cow ears, and birdlike talons. In addition, loong dragons are associated with water rather than fire, and are seen as sea and weather spirits capable of conjuring rainfall, floods, and storms. They often clutch a flaming pearl in one of their claws, which are symbols of divinity, immortality, and power over the natural world. Traditionally, loong are associated with the Chinese emperor and imperial power, and are the zoomorphic embodiment of yang, the masculine counterpart of yin. In Chinese culture, dragons are bringers of rain, good fortune, and prosperity, and are seen as water deities.

This miniature book is bound in black snakeskin. Mounted onto the front cover is an ivory dragon seal engraved with the Chinese character for dragon.

Japanese Mythology

9 Saito Tadashi. Tsugaru Mukashikko Shū. Hirosaki-shi, Japan: Midori no Fue Mamehon no Kai, Shōwa 40 [1965]. GR340.S25 T78

This curious green creature sitting atop a stump is a Japanese yōkai spirit known as a kappa (河童; "river-child"), which dwells in streams, rivers, and ponds. The kappa are usually depicted as green, reptilian humanoids who possess scaly or slimy skin, webbed hands and feet, turtle shells on their backs, and an indentation on their heads called a dish (sara), where water pools. The kappa’s water dish is the source of its supernatural power, and if the dish is spilled or its contents dry up, the spirit is rendered inert or can even perish. They are approximately the size of a human child, yet possess unnatural strength. Unlike many yōkai spirits, the kappa, given its high level of intelligence, is known to learn and speak the languages of humans. In terms of diet, the kappa prefers entrails (especially of humans), and cucumbers. When not causing mischief, they enjoy sumo-wrestling, playing Shogi (also known as Japanese chess), and even teaching humans medicinal skills. Legend has it that the kappa taught humans bone-setting. Kappa are worshiped as water gods in Shinto tradition, and people often leave offerings of cucumber at riverbanks to appease them. In return, the kappa play games, irrigate fields for farmers, and even watch after unsupervised children. In addition, they are devoutly honorable and will not break an oath, nor deny someone a bow.

While some kappa are friendly, others can be fearsome and deadly. In Japan, bodies of water where kappa are said to dwell are often designated with warning signs. The kappa abhor horses and cattle, and will drag them into water and drown them. They can also turn on humans and have been known to pull them underwater and devour them alive. In the water, the kappa cannot be escaped, but on land, it is awkward and can be defeated. One such method is to weaponize its strict moral code: bowing low to a kappa will make it bow low in return, causing it to spill the water in its head-dish; the defeated kappa is then a loyal friend for life.

10 Andrew Lang. Japanese Bogies. Tilton, N.H.: Hillside Press, 1974.

Lang’s Japanese Bogies is a miniature collection of Japanese mythology and folklore featuring Yōkai (妖怪), a classification of supernatural beings akin to spirits, ghosts, or monsters. Yōkai spirits vary in power and danger, with some causing mischief and minor inconveniences, while others are more malevolent and monstrous.

Pictured here is a Tenjōkudari (天井下, “ceiling hanger”), a yōkai spirit resembling a naked, elderly woman with unkempt hair and a long tongue. The tenjōkudari is said to live in attics or narrow roof crawlspaces, and during the night, it will crawl down and hang from the ceiling to frighten humans. In Japanese folklore, attics were associated with superstitious places, where corpses could roll around or women could be imprisoned, which is the likely origin of this spirit. One such legend of a tenjōkudari includes a spirit that inhabited the attic of an inn in Yamanashi and preyed upon weary travelers. When night fell, the spirit would hang down from the attic and yank victims up into its lair, where it would devour them. In fact, an old Japanese proverb for ‘causing trouble’ is “to show someone the ceiling” (“tenjō wo miseru”). Some other yōkai that make appearances in Japanese Bogies include the Ōkubi (大首), a giant, spectral head of a woman with black teeth that spreads sickness with its breath, and the buruburu (震々), a spirit of fear born from acts of cowardice that takes hold of people’s shirt collars and sends shivers down their bodies.

11 Ryūnosuke Akutagawa. Mirage. Chiba, Japan: Tetsuji and Minami Asano, 2013.

In Japanese legend, oceanic mirages appear when gigantic clams called shen breathe out ki, or life energy. These illusions are called shinkirō, which is also the Japanese word for mirage, and usually take the form of magnificent, multistoried cities with towering palaces and pagodas. Shen clams are said to exhale their ethereal cities on still nights, and their cities remain untouchable on the horizon, no matter how far mariners travel to reach them. Interestingly, legends relate the shen clams and their shinkirō to sea dragons, and some legends even say that the illusory cities are an aspect of Ryūgū-jō (竜宮城, 龍宮城; “Dragon Palace Castle”), the oceanic palace of Ryūjin, the draconic sea god of Japanese mythology.

Native American Mythology and Folklore

12 Maryline Poole Adams. The Sun, Full Circle, North. Berkeley, California: Poole Press; Mill Valley, California: Splendid Press, 1981.

Ravens are incredibly important in Inuit spiritual tradition, and legends attribute Raven with the creation of plants and the stewardship of the first humans. In Inuit mythology, Tulugaak or Tuluŋigraq is the raven god and the creator of light. Inuit legend states that in the beginning, the world was steeped in perpetual darkness until Tuluŋigraq found the sun, which was wrapped tightly in an animal skin. With his beak, he broke open the wrapping and freed the sun. It lifted into the sky, bringing light to the world and banishing the darkness.

13 Dianne Weiss. Raven. Mill Valley, California: Figment Press, 1991.

In the mythologies and spiritual beliefs of the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, Raven is both a trickster and a culture hero. A few notable Native nations and tribes that revere the raven spirit include the Inuit, Coast Salish, Haida, Heiltsuk, Kwakwaka’wakw, Koyukon, Tlingit, and Tsimishian. While every nation and tribe have their own Raven stories, he is most often thought of as a creator of the world and bringer of light. As a trickster, Raven often employs cunning, deceit, or foul play to achieve his goals, which can benefit or harm humans. In one of the more common Raven legends, the world is trapped in eternal darkness until he either steals or unleashes the sun or light into the world.

In Tlingit tradition, the Great Spirit created all things and stored them in cedar boxes before entrusting them to the animals that existed before humans. The animals then opened their boxes, releasing things such as water, plant seeds, fire, and mountains into the world. However, Seagull, who had been given the box containing the world’s light, refused to open it, even after pleading from the other animals. Unable to convince Seagull, Raven resorts to sticking Seagull with a thorn until he is forced to drop his box, which falls and breaks open, unleashing the sun, the moon, and the stars.

A Haida Raven legend states that in the beginning of the world, Gray Eagle hoarded the sun, moon, stars, fire, and fresh water, leaving humans in everlasting night, with nothing to drink. Raven, who was once white as snow, charms Gray Eagle’s daughter, who invites him to their longhouse. Once there, Raven steals Gray Eagle’s treasures and escapes through the longhouse’s smoke hole. Raven hangs the sun, moon, and stars in the sky and drops the water onto the land. However, before he could find a place to drop fire, the smoke blew back onto his feathers, blackening them. This is why ravens are now black.

14 Herschel C. Logan. The Thunderbird: Sacred Bearer of Happiness Unlimited. Santa Ana, California: Log-Anne Press, 1982.

The Thunderbird is a powerful animal spirit found in the spiritual traditions of multiple Native American nations and tribes across the Great Plains, Great Lakes, the Pacific Northwest Coast, and the Southwest. A few of these tribes include the Algonquians, Apache, Arapaho, Arikara, Blackfeet, Comanche, Crow, Gros Ventre, Haida, Ho-Chunk, Hopi, Lakota, Menominee, Navajo, Ojibwe, Potawatomi, Pueblo, Shawnee, Sioux, and the Tlingit.

While there are some variations in its depiction, the Thunderbird spirit retains many of the same traits across cultures. Seen as a colossal bringer of storms, rain, and thunder, the Thunderbirds created thunderclouds by flapping their enormous wings. In Northwestern tradition, the Thunderbird can carry a whale with its talons. It can generate lightning by opening and closing its eyes or shooting from its beak. Rainfall was believed to fall from the thunderbird’s back, where it carried a great lake. In the Great Plains, thunderclaps were attributed to the intense battles between the Thunderbird and a giant rattlesnake. Despite its giant form and godlike power, the Thunderbird was most often portrayed as a protector of humans. In Algonquian tradition, the Thunderbird is the ruler of the upper world, and battles the Great Horned Serpent, who rules the underworld. Creatures in service of the Great Horned Serpent are struck down by the Thunderbird’s lightning or repelled by its thunder. In drier areas such as the Great Plains, the Thunderbird’s rainmaking powers made it a symbol of happiness.